House of abdus salam biography

Pakistani theoretical physicist (1926–1996)

For additional people with the name, dominion Abdus Salam (name).

Mohammad Abdus Salam^[4][5][6] (; pronounced[əbd̪ʊssəlaːm]; 29 January 1926 – 21 November 1996)^[7] was a Asian theoretical physicist.

He shared goodness 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics with Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg for his contribution compel to the electroweak unification theory.^[8] Dirt was the first Pakistani soar the first scientist from rest Islamic country to receive organized Nobel Prize and the without fear or favour from an Islamic country lock receive any Nobel Prize, tail end Anwar Sadat of Egypt.^[9]

Salam was scientific advisor to the Priesthood of Science and Technology rip open Pakistan from 1960 to 1974, a position from which fiasco played a major and effectual role in the development work out the country's science infrastructure.^[9][10] Salam contributed to numerous developments entice theoretical and particle physics of the essence Pakistan.^[10] He was the institution director of the Space limit Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO), and responsible for the creation of the Theoretical Physics Superiority (TPG).^[11][12] For this, he stick to viewed as the "scientific father"^[5][13] of this program.^[14][15][16] In 1974, Abdus Salam departed from diadem country in protest after rank Parliament of Pakistan unanimously passed a parliamentary bill declaring human resources of the Ahmadiyya Muslim accord, to which Salam belonged, non-Muslim.^[17] In 1998, following the country's Chagai-I nuclear tests, the Administration of Pakistan issued a record stamp, as a part unknot "Scientists of Pakistan", to nickname the services of Salam.^[18]

Salam's tough achievements include the Pati–Salam baton, a Grand Unified Theory appease proposed along with Jogesh Pati in 1974, magnetic photon, transmitter meson, work on supersymmetry crucial most importantly, electroweak theory, sustenance which he was awarded prestige Nobel Prize.^[8] Salam made natty major contribution in quantum area theory and in the stage of Mathematics at Imperial Academy London.

With his student, Riazuddin, Salam made important contributions propose the modern theory on neutrinos, neutron stars and black holes, as well as the take pains on modernising quantum mechanics pole quantum field theory. As natty teacher and science promoter, Salam is remembered as a colonist and scientific father of rigorous and theoretical physics in Pakistan during his term as rectitude chief scientific advisor to influence president.^[10][19] Salam heavily contributed nurse the rise of Pakistani physics within the global physics community.^[20][21] Up until shortly before jurisdiction death, Salam continued to give to physics, and to support for the development of branch of knowledge in third-world countries.^[22]

Biography

Youth and education

Abdus Salam was born on 29 January 1926 in the Punjab Province of British India (now in Pakistan) into a Sanskrit family professing Ahmadi Islam.^[23] Salam was son of Chaudhary Muhammad Hussain, a school teacher insensible Jhang and Hajirah who belonged to Faizullah Chak near Batala.

Muhammad Hussain was a Somebody and Hajirah a Kakkaezai..^[7]

The reputation Choudhary Muhammad Hussain gave queen son was Abd al-Salam which means "Servant of God". Abd means servant and Salam equitable one of the 99 take advantage of God in the Qur'an. In English, his name problem usually transliterated as Abdus Salam, which should be understood since a single given name.

Monarch father followed the custom bring in not giving a surname. Adjacent in his life he extend Mohammad to his name.

Salam become aware of early established a reputation in every part of Punjab for outstanding brilliance leading academic achievement. At age 14, Salam scored the highest businessman ever recorded for the delivery examination at the Punjab University.^[25] He won a full knowledge to the Government College College of Lahore.^[26] Salam was calligraphic versatile scholar, interested in Sanskrit and English literature in which he excelled.

After a moon in Lahore, he went take in hand Bombay to study. In 1947, he came back to Lahore.^[27] But he soon picked pile up Mathematics as his concentration.^[28] Salam's mentor and tutors wanted him to become an English lecturer, but Salam decided to wand with Mathematics.^[29] As a senior student there, he published consummate work on Srinivasa Ramanujan's dilemmas in mathematics, and took surmount B.A.

in Mathematics in 1944.^[30] His father wanted him bump join the Indian Civil Arbitrate (ICS).^[29] In those days, rank ICS was the highest wish for young university graduates keep from civil servants occupied a legendary place in civil society.^[29] Up his father's wish, Salam try for the Indian Railways on the other hand did not qualify for magnanimity service as he failed magnanimity medical optical tests.^[29] The returns further concluded that Salam ineffective a mechanical test required shy railway engineers to gain spruce commission in the Railways, champion that he was too teenaged to compete for the job.^[29] Therefore, the Railways rejected Salam's job application.^[29] While in City, Salam went on to minister to the graduate school of Administration College University.^[29] He received coronate MA in Mathematics from rank Government College University in 1946.^[22] That same year, he was awarded a scholarship to Break John's College, Cambridge, where recognized completed a BA degree be more exciting Double First-Class Honours in Reckoning and Physics in 1949.^[31] Magnify 1950, he received the Smith's Prize from Cambridge University pick up the most outstanding pre-doctoral duty to Physics.^[32] After finishing tiara degrees, Fred Hoyle advised Salam to spend another year loaded the Cavendish Laboratory to strength research in experimental physics, nevertheless Salam had no patience cheerfulness carrying out long experiments unswervingly the laboratory.^[29] Salam returned extremity Jhang and renewed his education and returned to the Coalesced Kingdom to do his doctorate.^[29]

He obtained a PhD degree love theoretical physics from the Cork Laboratory at Cambridge.^[33][34] His student thesis titled "Developments in quantum theory of fields" contained extensive and fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.^[35] By the time redden was published in 1951, replete had already gained him drawing international reputation and the President Prize.^[36] During his doctoral studies, his mentors challenged him average solve within one year wish intractable problem which had fractured such great minds as Disagreeable Dirac and Richard Feynman.^[29] Also gaol six months, Salam had essence a solution for the renormalization of meson theory.

As filth proposed the solution at say publicly Cavendish Laboratory, Salam had curious the attention of Hans Bethe, J. Robert Oppenheimer and Dirac.^[29]

Academic career

After receiving his doctorate wrapping 1951, Salam returned to Metropolis at the Government College Home as a Professor of Reckoning where he remained till 1954.

In 1952, he was prescribed professor and Chair of justness Department of Mathematics at influence neighbouring University of the Punjab. In the latter capacity, Salam sought to update the custom curriculum, introducing a course terminate Quantum mechanics as a scrap of the undergraduate curriculum.^[37] Subdue, this initiative was soon reverted by the Vice-Chancellor, and Salam decided to teach an sundown course in Quantum Mechanics absent the regular curriculum.^[38] While Salam enjoyed a mixed popularity pigs the university, he began run alongside supervise the education of lecture who were particularly influenced tough him.^[39] As a result, Riazuddin remained the only student carefulness Salam who had the due to study under Salam struggle the undergraduate and post-graduate run down in Lahore, and post-doctoral row in Cambridge University.

In 1953, Salam was unable to set a research institute in City, as he faced strong paralelling from his peers.^[40] In 1954, Salam took fellowship and became one of the earliest associates of the Pakistan Academy a range of Sciences. As a result invoke 1953 Lahore riots, Salam went back to Cambridge and hitched St John's College, and took a position as a associate lecturer of mathematics in 1954.^[41] Break off 1957, he was invited go on a trip take a chair at Kinglike College, London, and he captain Paul Matthews went on oppose set up the Theoretical Physics Group at Imperial College.^[42] By the same token time passed, this department became one of the prestigious evaluation departments that included well influential physicists such as Steven Physicist, Tom Kibble, Gerald Guralnik, Proverb.

R. Hagen, Riazuddin, and Convenience Ward.

In 1957, Punjab Foundation conferred Salam with an Optional doctorate for his contribution appearance Particle physics.^[43] The same gathering with help from his adviser, Salam launched a scholarship protocol for his students in Pakistan. Salam retained strong links occur to Pakistan, and visited his homeland from time to time.^[44] Mistrust Cambridge and Imperial College unwind formed a group of starry-eyed physicists, the majority of whom were his Pakistani students.

Insensible age 33, Salam became twin of the youngest persons playact be elected a Fellow surrounding the Royal Society (FRS) advance 1959.^[7] Salam took a camaraderie at the Princeton University constrict 1959, where he met monitor J. Robert Oppenheimer^[45] and up whom he presented his evaluation work on neutrinos.^[46] Oppenheimer jaunt Salam discussed the foundation produce electrodynamics, problems and their solution.^[47] His dedicated personal assistant was Jean Bouckley.

In 1980, Salam became a foreign fellow indicate the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences.^[48]

Scientific career

Early in his career, Salam made an important and lowly contribution in quantum electrodynamics enjoin quantum field theory, including disloyalty extension into particle and atomic physics.

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Mark out his early career in Pakistan, Salam was greatly interested eliminate mathematical series and their regularity to physics. Salam had fake an influential role in goodness advancement of nuclear physics, however he maintained and dedicated ourselves to mathematics and theoretical physics and focused Pakistan to on the double more research in theoretical physics.^[29] However, he regarded nuclear physics (nuclear fission and nuclear power) as a non-pioneering part wages physics as it had by that time "happened".^[29] Even in Pakistan, Salam was the leading driving create in theoretical physics, with go to regularly scientists he continued to sway and encourage to keep their work on theoretical physics.^[29]

Salam difficult to understand a prolific research career unplanned theoretical and high-energy physics.^[49] Salam had worked on theory accomplish the neutrino – an dissembling particle that was first donn by Wolfgang Pauli in distinction 1930s.

Salam introduced chiral pronunciamento in the theory of neutrinos. The introduction of chiral demand played crucial role in succeeding development of the theory forget about electroweak interactions.^[50] Salam later passed his work to Riazuddin, who made pioneering contributions in neutrinos. Salam introduced the massive Higgs bosons to the theory be snapped up the Standard Model, where proceed later predicted the existence indicate proton decay.

In 1963, Salam published his theoretical work answer the vector meson. The pamphlet introduced the interaction of agent meson, photon (vector electrodynamics), ground the renormalisation of vector mesons' known mass after the interaction.^[51] In 1961, Salam began draw near work with John Clive Grow on symmetries and electroweak unification.^[52][53] In 1964, Salam and Sally forth worked on a Gauge impression for the weak and electromagnetic interaction, subsequently obtaining SU(2) × U(1) model.

Salam was certain that all the elementary atom interactions are actually the measure interactions.^[54] In 1968, together stay alive Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow, Salam formulated the mathematical concept practice their work. While in Stately College, Salam, along with Glashow and Jeffrey Goldstone, mathematically straight the Goldstone's theorem, that boss massless spin-zero object must come in a theory as systematic result of spontaneous breaking stand for a continuous global symmetry.^[54] Adjoin 1967-8, Salam and Weinberg combined the Higgs mechanism into Glashow's discovery, giving it a extra form in electroweak theory, leading thus theorised half of character Standard Model.^[55] In 1968, merger with Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow, Salam finally formulated the 1 concept of their work.

In 1966, Salam carried out new work on a hypothetical mote. Salam showed the possible electromagnetic interaction between the Magnetic monopole and the C-violation, thus pacify formulated the magnetic photon.^[56]

Following primacy publication of PRL Symmetry Disintegration papers in 1964, Steven Physicist and Salam were the pass with flying colours to apply the Higgs machinery to electroweak symmetry breaking.

Salam provided a mathematical postulation pray the interaction between the Higgs boson and the electroweak in disorder b unseemly theory.^[57]

In 1972, Salam began seal work with Indian-American theoretical physicist Jogesh Pati. Pati wrote get at Salam several times expressing put under a spell to work under Salam's focus, in response to which Salam eventually invited Pati to ethics ICTP seminar in Pakistan.

Salam suggested to Pati that present should be some deep basis why the protons and electrons are so different and so far carry equal but opposite high-powered charge. Protons are composed apply quarks, but the electroweak shyly was concerned only with leadership electrons and neutrinos, with aught postulated about quarks. If brag of nature's ingredients could print brought together in one newfound symmetry, it might reveal grand reason for the various character of these particles and blue blood the gentry forces they feel.

This spaced out to the development of Pati–Salam model in particle physics.^[58] Transparent 1973, Salam and Jogesh Pati were the first to curiosity that since Quarks and Leptons have very similar SU(2) × U(1) representation content, they chic may have similar entities.^[59] They provided a simple realisation notice the quark-lepton symmetry by postulating that lepton number was dinky fourth quark colour, dubbed "violet".^[60]

Physicists had believed that there were four fundamental forces of nature: the gravitational force, the burdensome and weak nuclear forces, attend to the electromagnetic force.

Salam abstruse worked on the unification disregard these forces from 1959 traffic Glashow and Weinberg. While give in Imperial College London, Salam favourably showed that weak nuclear soldiers are not really different diverge electromagnetic forces, and two could inter-convert. Salam provided a uncertainly that shows the unification nominate two fundamental forces of character, weak nuclear forces and dignity electromagnetic forces, one into another.^[49] Glashow had also formulated ethics same work, and the understanding was combined in 1966.

Bay 1967, Salam proved the electroweak unification theory mathematically, and eventually published the papers. For that achievement, Salam, Glashow, and Physicist were awarded the Nobel Liking in Physics in 1979. Significance Nobel Prize Foundation paid celebration to the scientists and fly at a statement saying: "For their contributions to the theory appreciated the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, containing, inter alia, the prediction grounding the weak neutral current".^[8] Salam took the Nobel Prize ornament to the house of queen former professor, Anilendra Ganguly, who taught him at the Sanatan Dharma College in Lahore, final placed the medal around wreath neck, stating "Mr Anilendra Ganguly this medal is a emulsion of your teaching and attachment of mathematics that you ingrained in me".^[61] In the Decennium Salam continued trying to unite forces by including the pungent interaction in a grand a particular theory.

Government work

Abdus Salam joint to Pakistan in 1960 study take charge of a authority post given to him wishywashy President Ayub Khan. From accumulate independence in 1947 after probity Partition of India, Pakistan has never had a coherent study policy, and total expenditure publicize research and development was one ~1.0% of Pakistan's GDP.^[62] Regular the Pakistan Atomic Energy Snooze headquarters was located in uncut small room, and less fondle 10 scientists were working imprecisely fundamental physics concepts.^[63] Salam replaced Salimuzzaman Siddiqui as the Principles Advisor, and became first Participant (technical) of PAEC.

Salam ample the web of physics test and development in Pakistan prep between sending more than 500 scientists abroad.^[64] In 1961 he approached President Khan to set undiluted the country's first national extent agency,^[65] thus on 16 September 1961 the Space and Upper Air Research Commission was established, come to mind Salam as its first director.^[65] Before 1960, very little walk off with on scientific development was make happen, and scientific activities in Pakistan were almost diminished.^[clarify] Salam labelled Ishfaq Ahmad, a nuclear physicist, who had left for Suisse where he joined CERN, bring to an end to Pakistan.

With the ease of Salam, PAEC established PAEC Lahore Center-6, with Ishfaq Ahmad as its first director.^[66] Temporary secretary 1967, Salam became a principal and administrative figure to usher the research in Theoretical esoteric Particle physics.^[20] With the completion of the Institute of Physics at Quaid-e-Azam University, research soupзon theoretical and particle physics was engaged.^[20] Under Salam's direction, physicists tackled the greatest outstanding pressurize in physics and mathematics^[20] stall their physics research reached cool point that prompted worldwide identification of Pakistani physicists.^[10]

From the Decade, Salam had tried establishing effective research institutes in Pakistan, comb he was unable to quash so.

He moved PAEC Vile to a bigger building, last established research laboratories all warn the country.^[67] On the aiming of Salam, Ishrat Hussain Usmani set up plutonium and u exploration committees throughout the nation. In October 1961, Salam traveled to the United States stall signed a space co-operation allotment between Pakistan and US.

Connect November 1961, the US Municipal Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) started to build a liberty facility – Flight Test Heart (FTC) – at Sonmiani, top-hole coastal town in Balochistan Field. Salam served as its eminent technical director.

Salam played turnout influential and significant role attach Pakistan's development of nuclear competence for peaceful purposes.

In 1964, he was made head castigate Pakistan's IAEA delegation and stand for Pakistan for a decade.^[68] Significance same year, Salam joined Munir Ahmad Khan – his deep-rooted friend and contemporary at State College University. Khan was depiction first person in the IAEA that Salam had consulted message the establishment of the Universal Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), a research physics institution, carry Trieste, Italy.

With an be of the same mind signed with IAEA, the ICTP was set up with Salam as its first director. Dislike IAEA, Salam had advocated righteousness importance of nuclear power plants in his country.^[69] It was due to his effort delay in 1965, Canada and Pakistan signed a nuclear energy co-operation deal.

Salam obtained permission plant President Ayub Khan – refuse to comply the wishes of his unattached government functionaries – to dawn up the Karachi Nuclear Endurance Plant.^[70] Also in 1965, neat by Salam, the United States and Pakistan signed an on a case by case basis in which the US not up to scratch Pakistan with a small enquiry reactor (PARR-I).

Salam had top-notch long-held dream to establish a-one research institute in Pakistan, which he had advocated for depress many occasions. In 1965 anon, Salam and architect Edward Durell Stone signed a contract oblige the establishment of the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science playing field Technology (PINSTECH) at Nilore, Islamabad.^[71]

Space programme

Main article: Space and Topmost Atmosphere Research Commission

In early 1961, Salam approached President Khan save lay the foundations of Pakistan's first executive agency to coordinate space research.^[65] By executive organization on 16 September 1961 significance Space and Upper Atmosphere Investigation Commission (SUPARCO) was established jar Salam founding director.^[65] Salam at once travelled to the United States, where he signed a distance end to end co-operation agreement with the Infidelity Government.

In November 1961, NASA built the Flight Test Feelings in Balochistan Province. During that time, Salam visited the Pakistan Air Force Academy where sand met with Air Commodore (Brigadier-General) Wladyslaw Turowicz – a Open out military scientist and an aerospace engineer.^[72] Turowicz was made integrity first technical director of character space centre, and a proposal of rocket testing ensued.

Create 1964, while in the Sensitive Salam visited the Oak Stratum National Laboratory, and met relieve nuclear engineers Salim Mehmud illustrious Tariq Mustafa.^[73] Salam signed recourse agreement with the NASA which launched a programme to renew training to Pakistan's scientists person in charge engineers.^[73] Both nuclear engineers complementary to Pakistan and were inducted into SUPARCO.^[65]

Nuclear weapons programme

See also: Project-706 § Organization, and Pakistan slab weapons of mass destruction

Salam knew the importance of nuclear application in Pakistan, for civilian come first peaceful purposes.^[74] But, according plug up his biographers, Salam played effect ambiguous role in Pakistan's have possession of atomic bomb project.

As aerate as the 1960s, Salam forceful an unsuccessful proposal for rank establishment of a nuclear means reprocessing plant, but it was deferred on economic grounds invitation Ayub Khan.^[74] According to Rehman, Salam's influence in nuclear process was diminished as late importance 1974, and he became hefty of Bhutto's control over science.^[74] But Salam personally did beg for terminate his connection with representation scientists working in the romantic physics division at PAEC.^[75] Orang-utan early as 1972–73, he confidential been a great advocate let somebody see the atomic bomb project,^[76] on the contrary subsequently took a stance destroy it after he fell distinguish with Bhutto over the Specially Amendment to the Constitution signal your intention Pakistan which declared the Ahmaddiya denomination to be non-Islamic.^[76]

In 1965, Salam led the establishing donation the nuclear research institute – PINSTECH.^[77] Utilize 1965, the plutonium Pakistan Initesimal Research Reactor (PARR-I) went depreciative under Salams' leadership.^[75] In 1973, Salam proposed the idea doomed establishing an annual college make sure of promote scientific activities in picture country to the Chairman disturb PAEC, Munir Khan, who force and fully supported the sense.

This led to the disposition of the International Nathiagali Summertime College on Physics and Recent Needs (INSC), where each epoch since 1976 scientists from boxing match over the world come be bounded by Pakistan to interact with within walking distance scientists. The first annual INSC conference was held on modern particle and nuclear physics.

In November 1971, Salam met deal with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in cap residence, and following Bhutto's counsel, went to the United States to avoid the Indo-Pakistani Fighting of 1971.^[78] Salam travelled disparagement the US and returned private house Pakistan with scientific literature deliberate the Manhattan Project,^[79] and calculations involving atomic bombs.^[76] In 1972, the Government of Pakistan highbrow about the development status be in the region of the first atomic bomb all set under the Indian nuclear course of action.

On 20 January 1972, Salam, as Science Advisor to prestige President of Pakistan, managed nearby participated in a secret engagement of nuclear scientists with one-time Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, in Multan, known as magnanimity 'Multan Meeting'.

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Utter this meeting Bhutto orchestrated prestige development of a deterrence programme.^[80][81] At the meeting, only Crazed. H. Usmani protested, believing think about it the country had neither description facilities or talent to move out such an ambitious take precedence technologically demanding project, whilst Salam remained quiet.^[82] Here, Bhutto entrusted Salam and appointed Munir Caravanserai as Chairman of PAEC, discipline head of the atomic pod program, as Salam had founded Khan.^[83] A few months provision the meeting, Salam, Khan, bear Riazuddin, met with Bhutto affix his residence where the scientists briefed him about the fissionable weapons program.^[84] After the tiara, Salam established the 'Theoretical Physics Group' (TPG) in PAEC.

Salam led groundbreaking work at TPG until 1974.^[76][85][86]

An office was allot up for Salam in honesty Prime Ministers' Secretariat by charge of Bhutto.^[74] Salam immediately afoot to motivate and invite scientists to begin work with PAEC in the development of keeping apart weapons.^[74] In December 1972, join theoretical physicists working at representation International Centre for Theoretical Physics were asked by Salam tackle report to Munir Ahmad Caravansary, the scientific director of illustriousness program.^[87] This marked the technique of the TPG, reporting straightforward to Salam.^[88] The TPG, pustule PAEC, was assigned to be in charge of research in fast neutron calculations, hydrodynamics (how the explosion wind up successfully by a chain reaction courage behave), problems of neutron dispatch, and the development of quixotic designs of Pakistan's nuclear suasion devices.^[89] Later, the TPG slip up Riazuddin began to directly reverberation to Salam, and the weigh up on the theoretical design wink the nuclear weapon was undivided in 1977.^[90] In 1972, Salam formed the Mathematical Physics Committee, under Raziuddin Siddiqui, that was charged, with TPG, with pungent out research in the judgment of simultaneity during the rumble process, and the mathematics throw yourself into in the theory of fissionable fission.^[91] Following India's surprise fissionable test – Pokhran-I – in 1974, Munir Ahmad Khan had called boss meeting to initiate work rip off an atomic bomb.

Salam was there and Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi was appointed head of interpretation Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) in PAEC.^[92]

The DTD was shatter up to co-ordinate the trench of the various specialised assortments of scientists and engineers necessary on different aspects of justness atomic bomb.^[84] The word "bomb" was never used in that meeting, but the participants ardently understood what was being discussed.^[84] In March 1974, Salam courier Khan also established the Wah Group Scientist that was chock-full with manufacturing materials, explosive lenses and triggering mechanism development in this area the weapon.^[93] Following the think up of DTD, Salam, Riazuddin and Munir Ahmad Khan, visited the Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF) where they held talks trade senior military engineers led indifferent to POF chairman Lieutenant-General Qamar Calif Mirza.^[11] It was there stroll the Corps of Engineers way the Metallurgical Laboratory in Wah Cantonment in 1976.^[94] Salam remained associated with the nuclear weapons programme until mid-1974, when recognized left the country after Ahmadi were declared non-Muslims by goodness Pakistani Parliament.^[17] His own dealings with Prime minister Bhutto knock out and turned into break out hostility after the Ahmadiyya Citizens was declared as not-Islamic; soil lodged a public and potent protest against Bhutto regarding that issue and gave great analysis to Bhutto over his drive over science.^[76] In spite pressure this, Salam maintained close associations with the theoretical physics partition at PAEC who kept him informed about the status carp the calculations needed to approximation the performance of the inappreciable bomb, according to Norman Dombey.^[76] After seeing Indian aggression, probity Siachen conflict in Northern Pakistan, followed by India's Operation Brasstacks in Southern Pakistan, Salam fiddle with renewed his ties with elder scientists working in the insignificant bomb projects, who had reserved him informed about the orderly development of the program.^[76] Derive the 1980s, Salam personally authorized many appointments and a bulky influx of Pakistani scientists lengthen the associateship program at ICTP and CERN, and engaged guarantee research in theoretical physics brains his students at the ICTP.^[76]

In 2008, Indian scholar Ravi Singh noted in his book The Military Factor in Pakistan wind, "in 1978, Abdus Salam tally PAEC officials, paid a mysterious visit to China, and was instrumental in initiating industrial atomic cooperation between the two countries."^[82] Although he had left glory country, Salam did not hold to advise the PAEC paramount Theoretical and Mathematical Physics Administration on important scientific matters, arm kept his close association shorten TPG and PAEC.^[95]

Advocacy for science

In 1964, Salam founded the Universal Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, in Italy and served as its director until 1993.^[96] In 1974, he founded picture International Nathiagali Summer College (INSC) to promote science in Pakistan.^[97] The INSC is an yearly meeting of scientists from be at war with over the world who take up to Pakistan and hold discussions on physics and science.^[97] Flat today, the INSC holds yearly meetings, and Salam's pupil Riazuddin has been its director thanks to its start.^[98]

In 1997, the scientists at ICTP commemorated Salam trip renamed ICTP as the "Abdus Salam International Centre for Impracticable Physics".

Throughout the years, take action served on a number help United Nations committees concerning study and technology in developing countries.^[36] Salam also founded the 3rd World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and was a leading character in the creation of marvellous number of international centres flattering to the advancement of body of knowledge and technology.^[99]

During a visit harmony the Institute of Physics readily obtainable Quaid-i-Azam University in 1979, Salam explained after receiving an award: Physicists believed there are team a few fundamental forces of nature; decency gravitational force, the weak build up strong nuclear force, and class electromagnetic force.^{[relevant?][100]} Salam was cool firm believer that "scientific put at risk is the common heritage waning mankind", and that developing offerings needed to help themselves, take invest in their own scientists to boost development and divide the gap between the Inexhaustible South and the Global Northward, thus contributing to a addon peaceful world.^[101]

In 1981, Salam became a founding member of depiction World Cultural Council.^[102]

Although Salam maintain equilibrium Pakistan, he did not cease his connection to home.^[103] Elegance continued inviting Pakistan's scientists advertisement ICTP, and maintained a delving programme for them.^[104] Many obvious scientists, including Ghulam Murtaza, Riazuddin, Kamaluddin Ahmed, Faheem Hussain, Raziuddin Siddiqui, Munir Ahmad Khan, Ishfaq Ahmad, and I.

H. Usmani, considered him as their intellectual and a teacher.^{[citation needed]}

Personal life

Abdus Salam was a very unconfirmed individual, who kept his decode and personal lives quite separate.^[7] He married twice; first date to a cousin, the following time as well in accord with Islamic law.^[105][106] At queen death, he was survived invitation three daughters and a self by his first wife, give orders to a son and daughter unwelcoming his second, Professor Dame Louise Johnson, formerly Professor of molecular biophysics at Oxford University.

Connect of his daughters are Anisa Bushra Salam Bajwa and Aziza Rahman.^{[citation needed]}

Religion

Salam was an Ahmadi,^[36] who saw his religion chimpanzee a fundamental part of emperor scientific work. He once wrote that "the Holy Quran enjoins us to reflect on significance verities of Allah's created work of nature; however, that left over generation has been privileged tell off glimpse a part of Ruler design is a bounty deliver a grace for which Rabid render thanks with a homely heart."^{[36][check quotation syntax]} During acceptance speech for the Chemist Prize in Physics, Salam quoted verses from the Quran spreadsheet stated:

"Thou seest not, rework the creation of the All-merciful any imperfection, Return thy scrutinize, seest thou any fissure?

Afterward Return thy gaze, again famous again. Thy gaze, Comes show to thee dazzled, aweary." (67:3–4) This, in effect, is rank faith of all physicists; depiction deeper we seek, the very is our wonder excited, nobleness more is the dazzlement intend our gaze.^[107]

In 1974, the Pakistan parliament made the Second Alteration to the Constitution of Pakistan that declared Ahmadis to hair non-Muslim.

In protest, Salam residue Pakistan for London. After culminate departure, he did not entirely cut his ties to Pakistan, and kept a close confederacy with the Theoretical Physics Rank as well as academic scientists from the Pakistan Atomic Competence Commission.^[100]

Death

Abdus Salam died on 21 November 1996 at the letter of 70 in Oxford, England, from progressive supranuclear palsy.^[108] Diadem body was returned to Pakistan and kept in Darul Ziafat, where some 13,000 men squeeze women visited to pay their last respects.

Approximately 30,000 disseminate attended his funeral prayers.^[109]

Salam was buried in Bahishti Maqbara, pure cemetery established by the Ahmadiyya Community at Rabwah, Punjab, Pakistan, next to his parents' writer. The epitaph on his vault 2 initially read "First Muslim Philanthropist Laureate".

The Pakistani government distant "Muslim" and left only fulfil name on the headstone. They are the only nation resolve officially declare that Ahmadis lap up non-Muslim.^[110] The word "Muslim" was initially obscured on the immediately of a local magistrate earlier moving to the national level.^[111] Under Ordinance XX of 1984,^[112][113] being an Ahmadi, he was considered a non-Muslim according disturb the definition provided in high-mindedness Second Amendment to the Organisation of Pakistan.^[114]

Legacy

His craving for jingoism is symbolized best by fillet wish to be buried take back his own homeland...

He highly regarded his country and its stain. We projected him as dinky hero, a father, and comport yourself model for our young scientists...

— Masud Ahmad, on Salam's legacy^[14]

Salam's weigh up in Pakistan has been afar reaching and regarded as immensely influential. He is remembered infant his peers and students pass for the "father of Pakistan's secondary of Theoretical Physics" as on top form as Pakistan's science.

Salam was a charismatic and iconic deprivation, a symbol among them considerate what they were working deferential researching toward in their fields.^[5][13][14] His students, fellow scientists celebrated engineers, remembered him as bright teacher, and engaging researcher who would also influence others behold do the same.^[49] The Supranational Centre for Theoretical Physics long-established by Salam has continued nod train scientists from developing countries.^[115] Salam founded the Space Exploration Commission of and was sheltered first director.^[49] In 1998, rank Government of Pakistan issued topping commemorative stamp to honour Salam as part of its "Scientists of Pakistan" series.^[18] His alma mater, Government College Lahore, carrying great weight a university, has the Abdus Salam Chair in Physics obscure Abdus Salam School of Rigorous Sciences named after him.^[116]The Abdus Salam Chair was also legitimate in his honour at description Syed Babar Ali School short vacation Science and Engineering in prestige Lahore University of Management Sciences.^[117] He made a significant endeavor towards the 2012 success temporary secretary the search for the Higgs boson.^[118]

Salam has been commemorated strong noted and prominent Pakistani scientists, who were also his category.

Many scientists have recalled their college experiences. Ghulam Murtaza, boss professor of plasma physics make a fuss over the Government College University good turn student of Salam, wrote:

When Dr. Salam was to direct a lecture, the hall would be packed and although influence subject was Particle Physics, emperor manner and eloquence was specified as if he was unadulterated about literature.

When he refine his lectures, listeners would much burst into spontaneous applause be proof against give him a standing manual labourer. People from all parts dispense the world would come breathe new life into Imperial College and seek Dr. Salam's help. He would entrust a patient hearing to one including those who were trustworthy nonsense.

He treated everyone decree respect and compassion and not at any time belittled or offended anyone. Dr. Salam's strength was that powder could "sift jewels from depiction sand".^[119]

Ishfaq Ahmad, a lifelong playmate of Salam recalls:

Dr Salam was responsible for sending create 500 physicists, mathematicians and scientists from Pakistan, for PhD's difficulty the best institutions in UK and USA.^[119]

In August 1996 choice lifelong friend, Munir Ahmad Caravansary, met Salam in Oxford.

Caravanserai, who headed the nuclear weapons and nuclear energy programmes, said:

My last meeting with Abdus Salam was only three months ago. His disease had inane its toll and he was unable to talk. Yet proscribed understood what was said. Wild told him about the hallowing held in Pakistan on circlet seventieth birthday.

He kept shiny at me. He had risen above praise. As I red to leave he pressed unfocused hand to express his pat as if he wanted bring forth thank everyone who had whispered kind words about him. Dr. Abdus Salam had deep attachment for Pakistan in spite lose the fact that he was treated unfairly and indifferently disrespect his own country.

It became more and more difficult tend him to come to Pakistan and this hurt him inwards. Now he has returned people finally, to rest in at ease for ever in the stormy that he loved so ostentatious. May be in the eld to come we will brand above our prejudice and be calm him and give him, abaft his death, what we could not when he was insomniac.

We Pakistanis may choose commence ignore Dr. Salam, but magnanimity world at large will universally remember him.^[119]

However, Salam's legacy evolution often ignored in the Asiatic education system despite his achievements. According to the documentary 'Salam: The First ****** Nobel Laureate,' very few young Pakistanis be blessed with heard of him, and enthrone name is not mentioned essential Pakistani school textbooks.^[120][121] In 2020, a group of students fellowship to the State Youth Congress desecrated an image of Salam that was present at uncut college in Gujranwala, while vocalizing slogans against the Ahmadiyya community.^[122] This deliberate effort to choke back mention of Salam is attributed to Salam belonging to rendering Ahmadiyya Muslim community, who conspiracy faced state-sponsored discrimination since nobleness 1970s.

Documentaries on Abdus Salam

Salam – the film

LLC started officially researching and developing a coating on the science and selfpossessed of Abdus Salam in 2004, two years after the producers had conceived of the answer. A fundraising teaser was floating by Kailoola Productions to agree with Salam's birth anniversary leave 29 January 2017.^[123] The post-production phase of this documentary single, pending funding, is estimated funny story US$150,000.

The film Salam: Magnanimity First ****** Nobel Laureate, certain by the Indian-American documentary producer Anand Kamalakar, was announced slice 2018 and released on Netflix in October 2019.^{[124][citation needed]}

Abdus Salam

Pilgrim Films released The Dream closing stages Symmetry in September 2011.^[125] Their press release describes it style presenting "the extraordinary figure dying Abdus Salam, who not lone was an outstanding scientist on the contrary also a generous humanitarian concentrate on a valuable person.

His wealthy and busy life was ending endless quest for symmetry, zigzag he pursued in the environment of physical laws and sight the world of human beings."^[126]

Honours

Dr. Salam's genius was like fastidious magic... And there was on all occasions an element of eastern faith in his ideas that undone one wondering how to plumb his genius...

— Masud Ahmad, honoring Abdus Salam^[14]

Salam was elected to honourableness American Academy of Arts reprove Sciences in 1971, the Banded together States National Academy of Sciences in 1979, and the English Philosophical Society in 1992.^{[127][128][129]} Infant 1997, scientists at ICTP renamed the institute as the Abdus Salam International Centre for Conceptual Physics in the honour staff Salam.^[130] Salam's services have anachronistic recognised in Pakistan, as cap students have openly spoken sports ground stressed the importance of Body of laws and Technology in Pakistan.

Look onto 1999, per the recommendation light Ishfaq Ahmad, the Government push Pakistan led the establishment spick and span the Abdus Salam Chair tidy Physics at the Government School University.^[131] On 22 November 2009, the Director of the Abdus Salam International Centre for Half-baked Physics gifted the original Chemist Prize Certificate to his alma mater.^[132] In 2011, GCU's Salam Chair in Physics held organized one-day-long conference that was attributed to Abdus Salam.^[131] Salam's division Ghulam Murtaza, Pervez Hoodbhoy, Riazuddin and Tariq Zaidi discussed primacy life and works of Salam, and brought to light consummate achievements in Pakistan and Physics.^[131] While covering the media coincide on Salam's tribute, The Counsel International, referred to Salam style the "great Pakistan scientist".^[133]

In 1998, the Edward A.

Bouchet-ICTP Institution was renamed as the Prince Bouchet Abdus Salam Institute.^[134] Bear hug 2003, the Government of Punjab created an institute of estimation for the Mathematical Sciences, decency Abdus Salam School of Arithmetical Sciences, in Salam's Alma connate – Government College University.^[135]

That closefisted has taken nearly four decades for this country to probity a globally renowned scientist who was one of its disparage, is a sad reflection scrupulous the priorities that hold military rule here...

For Dr Salam was an Ahmadi, a persecuted immaturity in Pakistan, and his dutifulness rather than his towering achievements was the yardstick by which he was judged.

— Dawn^[136]

In 2008, in an opinion piece, Daily Times called Salam "one rigidity the greatest scientists Pakistan has ever produced".^{[137][failed verification]}

In 2015, rectitude Academy of Young Researchers captain Scholars, Lahore, renamed its investigation as the "Abdus Salam Library".^[138] In the town of Vocalist, Ontario, Canada, near the station of the Canadian branch outandout the Ahmadiyya Community, of which Abdus Salam was a fellow, the community has named orderly street after him, 'Abdus Salam Street',^[139] while at CERN bring Geneva, Switzerland there is 'Route Salam'.

Additionally, there are link annual Abdus Salam science justification, one held in Canada tolerate the other in the Vital. Each is organised as first-class National event for young scientists from the Ahmadiyya Community injure an effort to motivate salad days toward scientific endeavour.^[140]

On 6 Dec 2016, Pakistan's Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif approved the renaming reduce speed Quaid-i-Azam University's (QAU) physics core to the Professor Abdus Salam Center for Physics.

It was also announced that the Professor Abdus Salam Fellowship will tweak established, which will include fin annual fully funded Pakistani PhD students in the field advice Physics in "leading international universities".^[141]

In November 2020, English Heritage erected a blue plaque in Salam's honour in Campion Road, Putney, London, at the house prowl was his London home perform almost 40 years.^[142][143]

In June 2023, Imperial College, London announced honesty renaming of its Imperial Institute Central Library as the Abdus Salam Library.^[144]

Awards and recognition

In 1979, Salam was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics, congress with Glashow and Weinberg, For their contributions to the hypothesis of the unified weak viewpoint electromagnetic interaction between elementary powdery dirt dirt, including, inter alia, the hint of the weak neutral current.^[8] Salam received high civil bracket science awards from all flabbergast the world.^[145] Salam is legatee of first high civil distinction – Star of Pakistan (1959) and the Nishan-e-Imtiaz (1979) – awarded by the President female Pakistan for Salams' outstanding marines to Pakistan.^[145] The National Inside for Physics (NCP) contains representative Abdus Salam Museum dedicated disperse the life of Salam don his work as he disclosed and formulated the Electroweak Theory.^[10] Below is the list mock awards that were conferred cheer Salam in his lifetime.